History of Medieval Welsh Law

History of Medieval Welsh Law I will first look at Roman Law as this will give me the best understanding to see if Medieval Welsh Law was built up from Roman Law, or whether the medieval law is its own unique system of law. Wales was part of the Roman Empire for over 300 years. Roman law was unlike the oral culture that Wales possessed before they arrived, as the Roman law was written enabling discipline, where everyone lived and was punished by all the same rules, so not arbitrary. The procedure of a trial differed somewhat under the Republic and under the Empire. In Republican times justice was administered in accordance with the formulary system named from the formula which was drafted by the magistrate responsible for the administration of justice in the city. Any citizen could press charges against another through a patronus acting as his advocate. The charge had to be in inscriptione (in writing), signed by both delator and subscriptores (accuser and witnesses) and delivered to the praetor (judge). Praetores were in charge of the law courts and presided over the quaestiones (jurors). The accused had to be present at the nominis delatio (making a formal charge). The delator and the subscriptores swore oaths that they would not bring false witness and penalties were given against the delator, if himself or his witnesses were later to have been found to have lied. All witnesses could be questioned and subjected to speeches attacking their credibility. Rules for permitting evidence would seem to us to have been very negligent, and the court considered the written word or spoken word as legally binding. To decide the vote, each juror in secret erased a C (Condemno) or an A (Absolvo) from a pre-marked tablet, the praetor (judge) then announced the jurys decision. Because it was easy to bring suit against another person, there were indeed many lawsuits, as people were enticed by the material rewards if a suit were won. If the accuser won his case, a praemium was given to him. But if he lost, he was deemed to have committed a calumnia (false accusation) or a praevaricatio (collusion, or conspiracy to prosecute falsely) and was fined. If a criminal was caught red-handed or confessed the deed, punishment was inflicted without trial. If he claimed innocence and was a reputable citizen, trial was held before the praetor; otherwise, he was tried in front of a triumvir. In both instances, an advisory commission (consilium) was called to determine the question of guilt. And in either case, the punishment, personally was severe. Due to the growth of the Empire trial procedures changed somewhat and a new system was created, known as cognitio. It involved â€Å"ligigation being heard and decided by the provincial governor or his nominee, the iudex pedaneurs.† Two appeals were to be allowed in every case, a principle which is still followed in civil law today and has even influenced the structure of appeals in the UK in recent centuries. (Legal history of wales book) The first step was the postulatio or application for a hearing; then, the nominis delatio, the formal charge by a delator with his subscriptores present; the consuls next summoned the senate to determine if charges should be heard as one charge or should be divided; next was the inquisitio, in which evidence was heard; debate followed and speeches were limited by a water clock then finally a vote on the verdict. The praetors and propraetors (governors) published a list of principles and formulae of their practices in the form of edicts at the beginning of each term. Although each could effectively alter the formulae, in general the list remained the same. For example â€Å"one might legally kill to defend oneself,† this is still recognised by the modern laws of today. The judge was bound to follow the opinion of the jurists where they were agreed on a point of law, but if there was disagreement, the judge was free to decide the point of law as he saw fit (book). The views of the jurists would be relied upon as legal authority Before 212AD the Britons had the status of foreigners or peregrines and lived under a separate law to the Romans. The 3 laws under the Institutes of Gaius were: Ius civile – laws for citizens Ius gentium – laws for all nations (e.g. prohibition of murder) Ius naturale – natures laws (e.g. brothers forbidden from marrying their sisters, men forbidden from marrying a cow) The year 212 AD was very significant as it enabled every free person in Britain to automatically achieve Roman citizenship. This allowed the Britons to be classed as citizens enabling to enjoy all the benefits, the right to live by Roman Law (ius civile) and acquire the protection of the law. Following 212 AD the Britons lived by Roman law within the Roman Empire for almost two hundred years, enabling a significant legal development of the native people. An example can be shown by how the welsh embraced and so faithfully maintained the Christian religion and the legal order of the church itself was grounded and remained grounded in principles derived from Roman Law. This is represented by the church saying â€Å"ecclesia vivit lege romana,† the church lives by Roman law. Roman citizenship is generally described as an combination of three private law and two public law rights. In public law, citizens had the right to vote in the legislative assemblies – suffragium, also the right to stand for certain public offernces ius honorum. In private law, the citizen had the right to trade using roman law contracts, the right of commercium, had the capacity to contract a roman law marriage, conubium, and was able to make, witness and benefit under a roman law will, testamenti factio. Sources of the Roman Law Emperors edicts Responsa prudentium – the works of the learned jurists – their writings. The jurists expressed the values of the law and decided that the law is not arbitrary and must conform with standards of justice. The jurist Ulpian wrote, â€Å"Justice is the constant and perpetual wish to give every one their due† The jurists were an important professional class who practised their skills independently of those who argued cases before the law courts as jurists concentrated on jurisprudence. Jurisprudence was to be defined by the jurist Ulpian â€Å"as the knowledge of things human and divine, the source of what was just and unjust.† Ulpian also defined justice as â€Å"the constant and perpetual wish to give to everyone their due† This definition underlies the roman practice of allowing slaves and peregrines to earn freedom and citizenship by good works. The writings of the jurists were however a source of law in their own right. â€Å"It is significant that this source of law, quite foreign to the later common law of England, was to have its counterpart in the high respect accorded to jurists in the native welsh laws.† The father as a parent was important under roman family law, as they saw the family unit a legal unit and thought it was important to protect. In roman law the family unit is greater and more powerful than the common law today. The head of the family was usually the father and was known as the paterfamilias. Roman Law was ahead of its time in terms of equality for example with Property Law, When property was inherited it was split between all children, not discriminatory like most cultures e.g. sex/race discrimination. So adopted child has the same status and right as a natural child. Concept of anybody – any country, had black generals, by your behaviour you became a roman. Shows they were ahead of their time in concept of equality. 3) For perhaps a thousand years the native law of wales has been known as the law of hywel or cyfraith hywel in welsh or lex hoeli in medieval latin – from law of hywel dda. Cyfraith Hywel, the law of Hywel, was the name by which their native law was known to the Welsh in medieval times. The law of Hywel lost its primacy after the conquest of Wales by Edward I and the passing of the Statute of Wales in 1284, but it remained an important ingredient of the law administered in Wales until the Act of Union in 1536 His reign was a peaceful one. Hywel was in a position to promote reform and uniformity in Welsh law. The law of Hywel was based on tradition rather than king-made, and is believed to have been adapted from existing laws. Some aspects probably predated his lifetime. The law did not overly stress the power of the crown, but mostly aimed to protect the people of Wales. The native laws were the recorded customs of the people, which is distinguished from Roman Law (the laws of the Emperor) and Canon Law (the laws of the Church. One advantage which Welsh law enjoyed in the political storms of the thirteenth century was that it had written form. Already in the twelfth century it was felt to be an embarrassment if law remained unwritten. Roman law was embodied in texts, and with the great legal revival of the eleventh and twelfth centuries it was felt that any law worthy of the name should be written. Hywel dda’s objectives was to examine the law, through this to validate and amend the current laws at this time, even introduce and remove laws, promoting a unified concept of Welsh law For centuries to come, living under the Law of Hywel would be one of the definitions of the Welsh people. There was a distinction between south and north wales Title/role Rome Medival welsh law Judge/presider Praetor or magistrate Elected Has consilium of three legal experts to consult In south wales, local lord would be the judge, with the advise of a lawyer, and the church would have its own courts for ecclesiastical matters. North Wales, a professional judge decided cases.. Roman influence – law reporting, use of formula Jury Quaestiones 32 to 75 jurors, depending on type of case Chosen from album judicum, list of men of senatorial or equites class Verdict decided by majority vote Usually 12 jurors Selected from a panel of citizens Individually examined, accepted, or rejected by prosecution and defense Verdict usually must be unanimous Verdict C = condemno, A = absolvo By secret ballot Result announced by praetor Guilty or not guilty By unanimous decision but each jurors vote can be polled in open court Decision read aloud by judge Prosecutor Accusator Private citizen Public official elected or appointed Defense attorney Patronus or advocatus May not accept money, although favors allowed Professional lawyer Accepts retainer or fee or works pro bono publico Defendant Reus Innocent until proven guilty Kept under house arrest or imprisoned until trial Usually in private home Innocent until proven guilty Imprisoned or free on bail or own word until trial Witnesses Subscriptores, required by magistrates subpoena Subpoena can be issued Clerks Scribae to record events Recorder/stenographer Makes word-for-word transcript of proceedings (required in event of appeal) The lawbooks do mention some practices which are confined to particular parts of wales, but we shall see that their compliers felt quite free to draw their material from any part of wales with the assurance that it was good law for any other part. –maybe from book Welsh Medieval Law contains many similarities to the Roman Law that came before it. An example of this is clearly shown with the law of marriage. Both traditions were contracted informally, without ant ceremony, the mutual intention of the couple to live together as man and wife being sufficient. Boys had to be of the age fourteen and girls twelve, but the girl could not bear children until 14 and not after 40 years of age, this is developed from the same principle as Roman Law. In roman law didn’t discriminate between married and cohabiting couples. Especially in context of children. Status of illegitimate children is still a controversial issue today. Married women held their own property (but not land) and although came under the protection of their husbands, had rights as members of their own family. The wife would be granted a dowry by her own family, her gwaddol and she would be given a share of her husbands property, her agweddi. The husband giving wife agweddi depending on how you analyse it, as looking at it from as modern day viewpoint then it appears discriminatory. But back in the period of Hywel Dda the elements of welsh law did protect women, even though it was still a male dominated world the women had a far better status than the laws of England at the time provided for them. After the consummation of the marriage, the wife’s husband would give her a gift known as the cowyll and would also pay her arglwydd an amobr, a payment for taking her virginity. The church began to increase its powers with the law making decisions, and set out prohibited degrees of marriage, and objected to marriage as far as fifth cousins. The welsh did not agree with this and so were in constant breach of this canon law. However the Romans had a different viewpoint and allowed 2nd cousins to marry which was the same line the Welsh followed. The Welsh law on marital separation was also similar To Roman Law, if the marriage was dissolved within the first seven years then the wife kept the bounty that she had received at the time of the marriage. If the marriage was dissolved after seven years, the matrimonial property split according to the rules laid out. The rights of the parties also depended on whether the repudiation was with cause. A man could repudiate his marriage if his wife was immoral after marriage, had lost her virginity before marriage, or if there was an underpayment of gwaddol by her own family. A women could do the same if her husband had committed three adulteries, was impotent, had bad breath, or if he introduced a concubine? To the family home. With regards to Roman law marriage would be terminated if either party repudiated the other (repudium) or both agreed that the marriage was at an end (divortium). The position of women under welsh law differed significantly to that of their Norman-English contempories. Women remained independent and not considered to be the property of father or husband in the same way. The welsh lawbooks have a combination of crudity and sophistication in the texts, this can be seen on the law of women. Welsh law showed its equitable and just side by not recognising any distinction between children born within wedlock and those born outside. This was important when determining liability for compensation in the event of commission of wrongs by or towards the child. I will now look at land law where the uchelwyr enjoyed land rights collectively, with the penteulu, the head of the household nominally in charge. The name for this family holding was gwely, the soms would inherit jointly in equal and individual shares for four generations. However when the father died the property was inherited by the sons only. [I think roman law was more equality based]. Land could not be taken forcibly from lawful owner which is based on roman law. With regards with property other than land, other property was inherited by all the children in accordance with the law. The wife kept half of her husbands property and the remainder of the land was split with sons taking equally and then finally daughters taking half of that which the sons received. However in certain parts of South Wales, the Roman influence ensured that daughters inherited in equal shares with the sons. With roman law once the paterfamilias died the family inherited it as a group a unit. In order to split the property between themselves as individuals they had to do so by initiating a procedure an action familiae erciscundae. Otherwise they could continue to hold the property collectively in a consortium. Water, air and land were open to all, and unoccupied land could be possessed and later owned, if it had been in uninterrupted possession for four generations or more, this also resembles roman law of setting limitation periods for the highly valued land. Childless couples can adopt children and adopted child has same rights as natural child. Even if the father then remarries and has children, then the adopted child is still the first child and the next in line of the paterfamilias. Unjust roman laws – being able to discard children who were unwanted (as in with disabilities) but they didn’t have the medical resources that we have today. Plus they thought of disabled children as living with sin. Paterfamilias could put to death his children and his slaves for any act of disobedience or disloyalty. After observing the welsh medieval law it appears to echo Roman law, however one difference I have noted is that welsh law did not recognise the roman distinction between sale and exchange. A main reason to this may do with the limited supply of minted coins in wales so unable to carry out commercial transactions, and instead carried out echange described as cyfnewid. So in this aspect Welsh Law of Hywel Dda was not as sophisticated as roman law, but Welsh law evolved in a certain way to deal with the economy. The basis of criminal law in medieval welsh law was the â€Å"three columns of the law,† which were homicide, theft and arson. In regards to homicide a killing had to be intentional for there to be punishment, and an unintentional killing would be resolved by compensation only. No compensation payable if the victim deserved to die, only due in the case of accidental killing, galanas. A physician was liable for the death of a wounded man to whom he gave treatment, particularly when he had failed to apply the skill expected of him. This is recognised in our modern laws of today as a form of professional negligence. A relict of Roman law is the ritual in confronting the thief, and gaining admission to search premises and requiring the suspect to swear as to whether the property was in possession. A judge who gave a wrong judgement could be sued, the roman equivalent to this law is known as qui litemsuam fecit. In medieval wales theft was regarded as a very serious crime and compensation and punishment was awarded. In addition to compensation for the damage caused, there was another form of compensation the sarhad. Sarhad means an insult and has to be intentional, the roman comparison is the iniuria. As can be clearly identified Welsh law differed to roman law on being a legal system that was compensation based rather than punishment. The reason this may have been the case is due to people in medieval wales saw compensation as a more just payment and solvement of the case. As the economic value in wales was very poor, more people probably would rather the money or equivalent to the money than justice served. So making amends is better than punishment being carried out. An issue to this was that those who were financially stable would be able to be above the law and commit crimes as they could afford the compensation and wouldn’t have to worry about the repercussions of their actions. As you look more in depth at the law of hywel dda as the state grew stronger, punishment was becoming more important but compensation still had priority. The payment was meant to buy off the vengence of the other group and prevent a blood feud arising. At the time of medieval Wales the law on issuing compensation rather than punishment to the welsh people probably appeared to them as sophisticated and just. However to modern eyes the Roman law model appears more equitable and just as they punished those at fault and is like our legal system of the 21st century. â€Å"The detail the law books supply with regard to the judicial process of the welsh laws go far to revealing their sophistication.† The administrative system of medieval Wales is like the roman jury system. The sophistication is provided by the roman model as this is the template that is adapted to fit in with the welsh system. â€Å"Different forms of witness were of acute concern to medieval lawyers, for in an age without police or forensic science the problem of proof was particularly difficult. Moreover, in a small-scale society, the difficulty of obtaining impartial witnesses might be severe.† The judge placed specific emphasis on quantity of witnesses, as they believed the more people you had on your side the stronger your case. Yet quantity isn’t quality, as you could have fifty witnesses who are all liars, better to have one truthful person which our modern law system is based on today. It is also equity based as the medieval welsh law followed the roman law and didn’t go back to the Celtic times of trial by ordeal and instead stayed sophisticated with a legal system put in place by the Romans. The Romans introduced a legal system which is a hallmark of their system, even though it was expensive as they had to give jobs for the legal professions, justice was above this they wanted it to prevail. A clear and distinctive identity of welsh law is the treatment of foreigners, where they provided privileges for visitors like food and shelter. This maybe due to the type of society formed as Wales was a close knit nation, needing tourism. Furthermore the Law of Hywel Dda was mainly written in Welsh furthering its distinctiveness of welsh laws. The laws of courts contain discussion of the status of the king, the members of the royal family. The queen was allotted 1/3 of the kings income for her personal use and that she is accorded a status greater than that of any of the court officers. This reflects the higher status enjoyed by women under the laws of Hywel Dda than in most contemporary legal systems. –maybe from the book. The Roman legal system is indeed different from what we follow but there are parallels in the roles of the participants, in the value of established procedure and precedent, and particularly in the many Latin terms and phrases that are still part of our legal language today. Romes continuing influence on society today is apparent in the government structure and legal system in use in much of the western world. One of the most sophisticated and practical systems of jurisprudence which the world has so far produced, and one merits of which allowed it to re-emerge in not just the medieval law but the legal system of Britain today and as the basis of the family of legal systems known as the civil law. Even the Welsh Dragon of our nations flag is actually symbol of authority by Romans. Welsh laws are officially regarded as the customs of the people. Distinguished from Roman law, laws of the emperor and medieval welsh laws are different. Enforce a law rather create law. He saw himself as a ruler/governor of Wales not as an emperor, so saw himself as enforcing things. I think that Roman law was the initial building bricks for the construction of law we know today and even though certain aspects of the law of hywell dda is unique to welsh medieval law, the main foundation is roman.

Free Awakening Essays: The Pigeon House :: Chopin Awakening Essays

The Pigeon House in The Awakening "In a little four-room house around the corner. It looks so cozy, so inviting and restful."(79) With this description Chopin introduces the reader to Edna’s new residence, which is affectionately known as the pigeon house. The pigeon house provides Edna with the comfort and security that her old house lacked. The tranquility that the pigeon house grants to Edna allows her to experience a freedom that she has never felt before. The first taste of this newfound freedom is the satisfaction that Edna feels in being able to provide for herself with her own money. The fact that she no longer has to rely on her husband’s money breaks the last tie that she had with him: "I know I shall like it, like the feeling of freedom and independence."(80) In her mind now, her marriage is dead, and Mr. Pontellier has no control over her. Financial freedom is not the only thing the pigeon house gives to Edna; it also allows her both physical and spiritual freedom. When Edna kisses Arobin in her husband’s house, she feels "reproach looking at her from the external things around her which he had provided for her external existence."(84) Yet, her first night at the pigeon house she spends with Arobin, and this time feels no reproach or regret. As for the spiritual ramifications provided by her new home, Chopin writes, "There was a feeling of descending in the social scale, with the corresponding sense of having rise n in the spiritual.., she began to look with her own eyes... no longer was she content to feed upon opinion."(94) The pigeon house provides a way for Edna to escape from the society that she hates. She has the freedom to make the decisions in her life now; and she decides that she is going to live life by her own rules, not the rules that society has laid out for her. When she is within her home, she is free from the pressures of being the "mother women" which society forces her to be. The pigeon house nourishes this newfound freedom, allowing it to grow and gain strength. Without the environment provided by the pigeon house, it is doubtful as to whether Edna would have ever "awakened" from the stupefied state that society was forcing her to live in.

Dependent Personality Disorder Essay -- essays research papers

A Psychological Aspect of Susan Smith: Dependent Personality Disorder   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  On October 25, 1994, Susan Smith drowned her two sons, Michael and Alex, in the John D. Long Lake in Union County, South Carolina. For nine days she lied about knowing where the boys were. On November 3, she confessed to the killings and would soon go to trial. Susan’s defense team hired a psychiatrist to conduct a psychiatric evaluation of her. She was diagnosed as having dependent personality disorder. He described her as a person who â€Å"feels she can’t do anything on her own†. â€Å"She constantly needs affection and becomes terrified that she’ll be left alone† She was only depressed when she was alone. The psychiatrist studied her family history and concluded that based on her family history and his interviews with her, Susan had a tendency toward depression that began in her childhood. Susan’s attorney argued that his client was psychologically destabilized by a lifetime of betrayal. A father who killed himself when she was just six, a stepfather who sexually molested her as a child, a husband who cheated on her and a boyfriend who toyed with her affections (Pergament).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Her boyfriend testified that â€Å"the pleasure she got from sex was not physical pleasure, it was just in being close and being loved†. The psychiatrist testified that Susan had sex with four different men during the six-week period leading up to the murders and she had begun to drink heavily during this time (Pergament). Alcoholism is a component of dependent personality disorder.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  After only four days of testimony, the defense rested its case. Susan was charged with two counts of murder and sentenced to life in prison with the chance of parole in 30 years, the year 2025.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Dependent personality disorder is an inability to function without significant reliance on a forceful or dominant person providing direction. Individuals diagnosed with dependent personality disorder are usually quiet, and needy for attention, valuation, and social contact. Lack of self-confidence and relying on others are typical. Threatened with solitude or separation, a dependent disorder person may panic  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  with feelings of profound helplessness (Gillihan). The person may be convinced that he/she is incapable... ...ost effective in treatment (Gillihan).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In conclusion, The National Mental Health Association suggests that: There are many types of help available for different personality disorders. Treatment may include individual, group, or family psychotherapy. Medications prescribed by the patient’s physician may also be helpful in relieving some of the symptoms of personality disorders including problems with anxiety and depression. References American Psychiatric Association (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-IV. (4th ed.). Washington, DC: Author Bornstein, Robert F. (1993). The Dependent Personality. New York: Guilford Press Gillihan, Lori. (n.d). Dependent Personality Disorder. Retrieved March 1, 2002, from http://cstl-coe.semo.edu National Mental Health Association. (n.d.). Personality Disorders. Retrieved from http://www.nmha.org Pergament, Rachel. (n.d.). Susan Smith: Child Murderer or Victim? Retrieved March 1, 2002 from http://www.crimelibrary.com Rey, Joseph M. (1996) Antecedents of Personality Disorders in Young Adults. Psychiatric Times, 13 (2). Retrieved March 1, 2002, from http://www.mhsource.com

Agriculture Industry Essay -- essays papers

Agriculture Industry There are various factors affecting the demand for John Deere's products. These factors can be categorized as Financial, Crops, Crop Prices, Line Stock Prices, Farm Equipment and the competition. Financial factors include interest rates, credit availability, currency exchange rates, monetary and fiscal policies set by the government, net farm income and government regulated price floors on the agriculture segment. Crops/Crop Prices include planed acreage, grain export and crop prices of wheat, corn, soybeans and cotton. Live Stock prices that affect the demand for the company's output are primarily the prices of Dairy, Beef and Hogs. Animal diseases like "mad cow", "foot and mouth" and crop pests and harvest yields play an important role in the live stock prices and in turn affect the demand. Farm equipment category consists of resale demand for used farm equipment, farmer's attitude towards farm equipment and new equipment prices which play an important role in the demand of the new equipment. John Deere faces a strong competition around the world, more in Europe than in US. The company realizes that demand for farm equipment is same in Europe as in the United States, but the current market share captured by John Deere in Europe is much less and hence there is a lot more room to grow there. Of these factors, the most important factor seems to be the ability of the farmer to buy the new equipment. This in turn... Agriculture Industry Essay -- essays papers Agriculture Industry There are various factors affecting the demand for John Deere's products. These factors can be categorized as Financial, Crops, Crop Prices, Line Stock Prices, Farm Equipment and the competition. Financial factors include interest rates, credit availability, currency exchange rates, monetary and fiscal policies set by the government, net farm income and government regulated price floors on the agriculture segment. Crops/Crop Prices include planed acreage, grain export and crop prices of wheat, corn, soybeans and cotton. Live Stock prices that affect the demand for the company's output are primarily the prices of Dairy, Beef and Hogs. Animal diseases like "mad cow", "foot and mouth" and crop pests and harvest yields play an important role in the live stock prices and in turn affect the demand. Farm equipment category consists of resale demand for used farm equipment, farmer's attitude towards farm equipment and new equipment prices which play an important role in the demand of the new equipment. John Deere faces a strong competition around the world, more in Europe than in US. The company realizes that demand for farm equipment is same in Europe as in the United States, but the current market share captured by John Deere in Europe is much less and hence there is a lot more room to grow there. Of these factors, the most important factor seems to be the ability of the farmer to buy the new equipment. This in turn...

Renewable Power Policy and Hydroelectric Dams Essay -- Environment Exp

Renewable Power Policy and Hydroelectric Dams There has been much controversy over changes in the environment due to the placement of hydroelectric dams, and also due to the pollution caused by other power plants which use non-renewable sources of energy. The arguments which come from certain groups against both sides seem rather strange. The purpose of this paper is to explore the environmental and other effects from both energy sources, and the arguments which are presented by different groups who lobby for and against the two sources of power. It appears in many opinions; a group will only access one issue, actually separating two topics which go hand in hand. The focus for examples in this paper with mainly rely on the southwest, and the case presented by the sierra club, which is one of the largest environmentalist lobbying organizations in the United States. A deeper focus will lie in the Grand Canyon, where there are now 11 dams in place. These dams in the Grand Canyon have been placed for a few reasons: the Colorado River Restoration Project, which is made to help maintain the steady flow of water through the canyon, as well as to maintain and built fish and wildlife habitat; a supply of hydroelectric power, which is a renewable energy source to power the southwest; water reservoirs for surrounding communities in the Grand Canyon area; and also for recreation areas on the lakes and reservoirs which have been created by the existence of the dams. The attacks on these programs are focused into three areas: environment, culture and recreation. Supporters of reservoir draining are fighting for what they call a dying ecosystem from the flooding of large areas and the destruction of much fi... ...notes.pdf> Franklin, Chris â€Å"Let the Colorado River run free† Earth Island Journal Spring 97: 23. â€Å"Glen Canyon: Just Drain It!† Earth Island Journal, Autumn 2000: 24. McManus, Reed â€Å"Down Come the Dams† Sierra Mau/June 98: 16. Ostapuk, Paul. Exposing Sierra Club and Glen Canyon Institute Myths. May, 1997. Appreciating Lake Powell. 09 Nov. 2003. Siddall, Scott. Current Controversy: Draining Lake Powell. 26 Mar. 2002. Kenyon College. 09 Nov. 2003. Smith, Dean. â€Å"Homework #4† Economics 284. Fall, 2003 â€Å"Unemployment Rate Drops to 6%.† Arizona Daily Sun 08 Nov. 2003: A1 Wilke, Anne W. â€Å"Should Lake Powell be drained?† E Magazine: The Environmental Magazine Jan/Feb98:19. Zengerle, Jason â€Å"Water over the damn† New Republic 24 Nov. 97: 20.

New Privacy Issues Related to Cyberspace Objective Essay

Select three organizations within the same industry for analysis — 1. Students should pick one industry from the displayed list below, and within that single industry, name 3 organizations for analysis. (BANKS-JP Morgan Chase, Citigroup, and Wells Fargo) 2. Describe the mission of each (from their website), and examine and compare details of each stated privacy policy, then 3. For each organization, recommend policy changes that will enable each organization to (a) use sensitive customer information to increase business advantage and profitability, and (b) also protect customer personal information to avoid possible privacy or liability issues. You may need to use trade journals and newspaper stories in your reference list. However, try to avoid opinion pieces (like blogs) that may not be factual. You may state your own opinions, but these must be strengthened by scholarly references. Table of Contents: 1. Introduction 2. Industries missions and privacy policies a. JP Morgan Chase b. Citigroup c. Wells Fargo 3. Recommended policy changes to increase business advantage and profitability a. Also include the good aspects of current policy that increases business advantages and profitability 4. Recommended policy changes to protect customer personal information to avoid possible privacy or liability issues a. Also include the good aspects of the policy that protect the customers information 5. Conclusion: JP Morgan Chase Mission Statement: JPMorgan Chase & Co. is a leading global financial services firm and one of  the largest banking institution in the United States, with operations worldwide. JPMorgan Chase conducts operations in more than 60 countries and has assets amounting to over $2trillion and its corporate headquarters are located in New York City. Their mission statement is as follows: At JPMorgan Chase, we believe that being profitable and doing good works for the people and the world around us aren’t exclusive of each other; they’re integrated goals. When our business is strong and well governed, we’re in a better position to translate positive financial results into sustainable community and environmental efforts that benefit everyone.

Buddhism in the Himalayas

Organized religions have become a part of one’s historical and cultural background. The need for political leaders and gurus to gather the people into one unit, for the maintenance of stability, has paved the way for the pursuit of knowledge; leading to the development of numerous philosophical undertakings and spiritual enlightenment. The proliferation of religious missionaries to the designated countries of contact have created and divided communities; cultivating a new set of belief systems and codes to abide by.At the onset of the spread of major religions like Christianity, Hinduism, Judaism, Islam and Buddhism, spiritual fermentation took place as socio-political activities merged with the religious practices of the various cultures present in a community. Throughout history, these major religions will struggle to outlive each other as they compete to gain a stronghold of followers for the preservation of their cultural beliefs. For this reason, many minority groups in a community are most likely to have been isolated or persecuted by the ruling culture.This was the case with Christianity under the Roman Empire, which accounted for the martyrdom of thousands of Christians who fought for their faith (Tignor et al. , 2008). However, during the rule of Constantine in 312 CE, the tables were turned and Christianity was now the flagship of the new Rome. This pivotal event is the key to the expansion of religions to far-reaching territories, as it conveys universal codes that pertain to the human condition.It is in this sense that the quest for religious ties was crucial to the progress of a community since morality played a big part in the formation of the people’s morale. Religion is said to be the cement that binds people together in any adversity and it is through this viewpoint that cultures grew and developed, as citizens become more aware of their place in the society. The grounds to which religion has shaped a community can be observed in a number of perspectives, particularly in the way artworks are made in a particular area (Tignor et al. , 2008).Wherever Buddhism spread, it seemed to rely on a necessary set of ingredients that encouraged it to prosper. The Silk Road was said to have advanced the spread of Buddhism in Tibet as the reach of most Indian missionaries in the mountainous regions of the Himalayas have contributed greatly to the foundation of Buddhism as one of the major religions in the world. It became a vehicle for Tibet to engage in trade with other neighboring countries like Nepal, China, Kashmir, Mongolia and Bhutan. Trade did not only consist of goods, but also of people, knowledge and religion.As a result, Buddhism was integrated into the livelihood of the Himalayan regions (Kapstein, 2000). The Role of Local Kings in Promoting Buddhism The success of the acculturation of Buddhism in Tibet would not be possible without the welcoming arms of most of the rulers in Tibet, starting with Princess Wench eng and Princess Jincheng. Then King Songsten Gampo established cordial relations with China and Nepal by marrying the Princesses of each country, securing the maintenance of harmony with these neighboring states.Both Princesses introduced the precepts of Buddhism to the King and its followers, which initially helped the expansion of Buddhism in the local communities. It was only under the reign of King Trhi Songdetsen that officially gave the go signal for Buddhism to take root in Tibet as it was legitimized it as the major practicing faith (Kapstein, 2000). The Padhmasambava statue found in the RMA represented the figure that further brought Buddhism to the Himalayas.Padhmasambava was said to be a guru who was summoned by King Detsan to Tibet in order to broaden the reach of Buddhism in the local communities. During this time, the ministers who adhered to the Bon religious sect disliked the direction in which Buddhism was heading for so the King administered the help of Padhmasanb ava to deter the growing power of the ministers. Wherever Buddhist missionaries went, chaos was sure to follow. As a result, civil war broke out between the two religious sects and the spread of Buddhism came to a stand still after the assassination of King Detsan.Under the guidance of the ministers, Lang Dharma took over and a long line of hostilities occurred across the land as persecution of the Buddhist monks and nunneries were carried out, bringing destruction to the initial monasteries built for worship (HAR 65422). Monastaries were a vital component of the Buddhism faith as it not only serves as a refuge for those who practice the faith or are oppressed, it is also the place where important books and records about Buddhism are stored. Destroying such an establishment would disrupt the solemnity of the faith.This is the reason why so many Indian and Chinese missionaries were needed in Tibet as rebuilding the monasteries was necessary for preservation of Buddhism. Under the rei gn of Je Tsongkhapa, the Ganden Monastery was erected amidst the chaos that enveloped the warring local communities. The monastery housed many monks and nuns who had been driven away by the enemies of the Buddhist religion and was described to be one of the grandest monasteries ever built. It also contained an extensive collection of Buddhist teachings and philosophies from famous gurus and translators who have kept the recorded teachings of Buddha (Kapstein, 2000).As years past, Tibetan and translators and pilgrims decide to take a journey to India, China and Nepal in search for gurus and more teachings that they could bring back to their homeland. This has led to the visitations of different Buddhist missionaries in Tibet; most notable are Atisa, the Indian scholar and the great translators Rinchen Zangpo and Milarepa. The presence of these three missionaries supported the rebirth of Buddhism in the local communities, after its devastated state during the reign of Lang Dharma.This was said to be the beginning of the evolvement of the Buddhist tradition (Kapstein, 2000). Emergence of a New Buddhist Tradition The Avalokiteshvara Statue and Painting seen in the RMA depicts the evolution of the images that constitute the image of Buddha to the local communities (HAR 65451 & HAR 40). Both of the artworks show the different adaptations made of the image of Buddha to fit the culture of a particular area. For instance, in China, Avalokiteshavara is referred to as Quan Yin while in Tibet he is known as Chenrayzeg.When Buddhism started its roots in India, it was known as Teravada Buddhism but by the time it has reached East Asia, it had become Mahayana Buddhism which consisted of slightly different set of beliefs yet still rooted in the Indian precept. When this spread into the Himalayas, it became known as Vadrayana Buddhism. From this context, one can see that while the teachings and stories about the Buddha are the same in many different regions, it often takes on the aspects of the local culture (Snelling, 1999).In reference to the Buddha Shakyamuni painting found in the RMA, one can denote that the painting illustrated different sights that foretold stories of Buddha Shakyamuni’s life. A part of the painting features people conversing with each other, while the Buddha is seen with a halo-like appearance as he gives lessons to a group of people (HAR 955). Himalayan art often depicts religious stories of tradition by incorporating Chinese and Western styles. Although the painting was done in Tibet, the stories included in the painting originated from India as that is the main setting of Buddha’s representation in the stories.The solemn presence of nature in the painting such as the mountains, trees, clouds and the wide landscapes demonstrates how Buddhism has interlocked with different cultural systems (Kapstein, 2000). Due to the blending of the Chinese, Indian and Tibetan systems, the results produced three subcategories of Bu ddhism in Tibet which were the Kadampa, Sakyapa and Kagyupa. All three only differed from the school of origin that they belonged to but they collectively teach the same principles that the great Buddha had taught (Snelling, 1999).Based on the research given about the historical context of Himalayan art and its special relation to Buddhism, it can be denoted that the artworks emphasize the importance of spiritual life in the Tibetan community. Most artworks depict a sense of other worldliness as it attempts to illustrate the merging of the earthly realms and the divine. Representations of important figures that facilitated the spread of Buddhism are seen as supernatural, with the appendage of several arms and a crown of miniature skulls over their heads, having serene stature that signifies respect.Most often, the artworks illustrate a unisex type of portrayal with a god-like stance, trampling over evil forces. The same can be said about the representations of Buddha, although eleme nts of earth-bound activities suggests that artists attempt to make Buddha seem more approachable to the people. The integration of Buddhism in Tibet’s culture has greatly influenced the way they view the world around them, and this in turn provides an outlook into the rooted spirituality that are present in the Himalayan regions. References: Avalokiteshvara statue & painting. HAR 65451 & HAR 40. In The Rubin Museum of Art.Buddha Shkayamuni – Life Story. HAR 955. In The Rubin Museum of Art. Kapstein, M. T. (2000). The Tibetan Assimilation of Buddhism: Conversion, Contestation, and Memory. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 57-58. Padmasambhava. HAR 65422. In The Rubin Museum of Art. Tignor, R. , Adelman, J. , Brown, P. , Elman, B. , Pittmann, H. , & Shaw, B. (2008). Worlds Together Worlds Apart: History of the World. (2nd ed. ). NewYork: W. W. Norton & Company. Snelling, J. (1999). The Buddhist Handbook: A Complete Guide to Buddhist Schools, Teaching, Practice, and History. Rochester, Vermont: Inner Traditions.